Кубанский государственный аграрный университет

Кафедра иностранных языков

Реферат

на тему:

«Replacement Housing.»

(«Помещения для ремонтного молодняка»)

Подготовил: студент группы СТ-21

Деревенец Ф. Н.

Краснодар, 1998

Contents

Management factors. Affecting design................................................................... 4

Facility management............................................................................................... 5

Herd size and makeup.............................................................................................. 5

Management groups................................................................................................. 6

Resting space........................................................................................................... 7

Feeding and watering space..................................................................................... 7

Handling and treatment facilities............................................................................ 8

Prep room................................................................................................................. 8

Feed and bedding storage........................................................................................ 8

Cold housing.......................................................................................................... 11

Warm housing........................................................................................................ 11

Calf housing (up to weaning)................................................................................ 11

Hutches in Cold Housing......................................................................................... 12

Hutch management............................................................................................................................ 13

Individual Pen in Cold Housing............................................................................... 13

Individual Stall in Warm Housing........................................................................... 13

Transition housing (3-5 months)............................................................................. 15

Calf Shelter or Super Hutch.................................................................................... 17

Transition Barn.................................................................................................................................. 17

Calf Barn............................................................................................................................................. 18

Heifer housing (6-24 months)............................................................................... 19

Freestall Housing..................................................................................................... 20

Two-row freestall barn..................................................................................................................... 20

Two-row graduated freestall barn................................................................................................... 21

Two-row gated freestall.................................................................................................................... 22

Drive-through gated freestall........................................................................................................... 24

Bedded Pack........................................................................................................... 24

Counter-sloped barn............................................................................................... 24

Optional outside lots.............................................................................................. 25

Факторы управления. Воздействие на проект.................................................. 27

Средства  управления.......................................................................................... 28

Размеры и структура стада.................................................................................. 28

Управление группами.......................................................................................... 30

Помещения для отдыха........................................................................................ 31

Пространство для кормления.............................................................................. 31

Обработка и средства обработки........................................................................ 32

Подготовительное помещение............................................................................ 32

Хранение корма и подстилок............................................................................. 32

Холодное помещение.......................................................................................... 34

Теплое помещение............................................................................................... 35

Помещения для телят (вплоть до отлучения)................................................... 36

Клетки в холодном помещении............................................................................. 36

Управление клетками...................................................................................................................... 36

Индивидуальные загоны в холодном помещении................................................ 37

Индивидуальное стойло в теплом помещении..................................................... 37

Переходное помещение (3-5 месяцев)................................................................... 39

Укрытие для теленка или первоклассная клетка.................................................. 41

Переходный сарай................................................................................................. 42

Сарай для телят...................................................................................................... 44

Помещение для нетелей (6-24 месяцев)................................................................. 44

Боксовые помещения........................................................................................... 45

Двухрядный  боксовый сарай............................................................................... 45

Двухрядный дифференцированный боксовый сарай........................................... 46

Двухрядный закрываемый бокс............................................................................ 47

Сквозной закрываемый бокс................................................................................. 48

Подстилочный узел.............................................................................................. 48

Встречно-наклонный сарай................................................................................ 49

Дополнительный внешний участок................................................................... 51

As replacement heifers grow, their needs change. This includes a change in needed physical environment. When a heifer is young, it is physically separated from other animals to minimize the risk of disease. As it grows, it is grouped with other animals to increase resistance to disease and prepare the animal for the breeding herd. Eventually the animal enters the breeding herd and finally the milking herd.

Each stage of production requires housing to meet the physical needs of the animal.

House replacement animals in separate facilities away from the milking herd to foster a healthy environment for each group. Well-designed and properly-managed replacement animal housing allows the ability to adopt the best management practices currently recommended. Plan space, equipment, environment, rations and care to meet the needs of each group. Manage replacements in groups according to their specific requirements. Facility design should allow for easy implementation of the management plan for each group. When planning replacement animal housing, provide:

Ø Adequate resting and exercise space.

Ø Covered, dry and draft-free resting area.

Ø Good quality fresh air.

Ø Adequate space for feed and water.

Ø Space to group animals by size or age.

Ø Clean lots to maintain sanitary conditions.

Ø Isolation area for sick animals.

Ø Observation area for animals.

Ø Treatment facilities.

Ø Space for handling and restraint of animals.

Poorly planned or improperly managed animal housing increases the risk of disease or injury. High humidities are especially detrimental to animal health. Pneumonia, scours and other diseases can permanently damage vital body organs and reduce milk producing potential of an animal. Calves and heifers raised in a poor environment may never reach their full genetic potential for milk production.

For healthy, high producing replacement animals, provide high quality housing and a management plan that addresses animals' needs. Good management, understanding what to do and then doing it on schedule, is important to the success of any housing system. Sanitation, stall maintenance, bedding, ventilation control, feeding, herd health, treatment and close observation are all important management practices. Young animals may need training and/or time to get accustomed to using freestalls. Daily or routine chores such as feeding, stall maintenance or manure removal should be made as convenient as possible to make sure they are accomplished in a timely manner.

Herd size can mean either the number of cows actually milking or mature cows both dry and milking. In this handbook, the herd size is the number of mature cows.

Typical herd makeup, assuming uniform calving year-round, is given in Table 1. The numbers in the table reflect no culling of heifers or calves. Use this table to determine housing needed for each management group. Provide:

Ø Calf housing (0-2 months).

Ø Transition housing (3-5 months).

Ø Heifer housing:

ü  6-8 months

ü  9-12 months

ü  13-15 months (breeding age)

ü  16-24 months

The number of replacement animals to be housed depends on the number of milking cows and bred heifers. As herd size increases, so does number of replacements. Increasing herd size without expanding facilities for replacements results in crowding which can increase injury, disease transmission, and lower growth rates.

Table 1. Typical management categories of a herd.[1]

This table is only a management guideline. These are categories and not group size

Separating replacement animals into groups according to age, size or special management needs allows each group to be treated according to its needs. Plan building space and layout for these groups of animals using Tables 2 and 3. More than one group can be housed in the same building, but allow for managing each group separately. In larger herds, separate facilities may be provided for each group. Some of the benefits of managing animals in groups are:

Ø  Healthier animals by minimizing the risk of transmitting disease to younger animals.

Ø  Good feed efficiency by reducing competition for feed.

Ø  Calving at proper weight and size at 24 months.

Ø Feed handling ease, and proper diets according to age.

Ø Manure handling ease.

Ø Animal observation and handling ease for breeding, treatment and grouping.

Ø Proper ventilation and environment.

Ø Proper resting space or freestall size.

Space requirements for a particular operation depend on the housing system chosen and how replacements move from the resting area to feed and to water and back again. Herd size and makeup are guides to estimating the space needed for resting, but alley size, water space and bunk space must also be considered to accommodate the animals and provide an animal friendly environment.

Provide separate areas for resting and feeding. Feeding in resting areas increases manure accumulation and more bedding is required to keep animals clean and dry.

Adequate resting space for management groups is a key factor in efficient growth. Required space for different housing alternatives including bedded resting areas, self-cleaning resting areas (solid, sloped floors) and freestalls are shown in Tables 3 and 4.

Provide adequate feeding space, so young stock do not have to compete for feed. Optimum feeding space varies with type of feed, feeding schedule and animal size, Fig 1 and Tables 5 and 6.

Water is essential at all times. Provide at least one watering space per 20 animals. Dairy heifers need 1-1,5 gal of water daily per 100 lb body weight. Select waterers that are easy to clean; protect them from freezing. Locate waterers on elevated curbs and in a location that allows easy manure removal around them. Adjust waterer height to allow small animal access.

Animal treatment areas are a necessary part of the replacement housing system. Vaccinations, artificial insemination, pregnancy checking, deworming, dehorning and examinations are done easily and safely for animals and workers when animals can be separated and restrained easily. Equipment that eases labor and saves time in handling animals are:

Ø Scales.

Ø Self-locking feed stanchions.

Ø Gating/fencing.

Ø Squeeze chute/breeding chute.

Locate a work room near calf housing for feed storage, a refrigerator/freezer, hot water heater, cleaning sink, health records and supplies. This area can be used to prepare milk replacer and clean feeding equipment.

Store bedding and feed in the building or nearby. Reduce daily hauling and feeding time by storing a one to two weeks supply. Storage space depends on animal density, feeding frequency and feed availability.

Table 2. Calf and transition housing.

Table 3. Replacement heifer resting area space requirements.

Table 4. Heifer freestall dimensions.

Stall width measured o. c. of 2" pipe stall dividers.

Stall length measured from alley side of curb to front of stall.

Table 5. Suggested dimensions for post and rail feeding fences.

Table 6. Feed space requirements.

Cold housing is the recommended system for raising replacement animals. Cold housing building systems provide a dry and draft-free environment in winter, and wind ventilation and shade in summer. The building is usually uninsulated and has natural ventilation designed as an integral part of the building. Indoor temperature follows outside temperature very closely.

Advantages of a cold housing are:

Ø Less expensive to build.

Ø Less expensive to ventilate and heat.

Ø Better disease control.

Ø During cold weather, disadvantages of a cold housing are:

Ø Freezing can make manure handling difficult.

Ø Waterers must be protected from freezing.

Ø Frostbite of calves ears may be a problem.

Ø Increased feed required to maintain body heat.

A warm housing system is less desirable for raising replacements. Typically environmentally controlled systems are improperly managed resulting in health and growth problems. The buildings are typically insulated heavily and a controlled mechanical ventilation system delivers fresh outside air. Properly designed inlets allow fresh outside air to be evenly distributed throughout the entire structure.

Design mechanical ventilation systems in calf barns to provide minimum continuous exchange of air, Table 7. Because the number of calves and young heifers in a facility vary, design mechanical ventilation systems for a range of stocking rates.

Calves and young heifers are very susceptible to respiratory illness and other diseases. Keep calves less than two months old in clean, dry, draft-free facilities with adequate space, bedding and fresh air. Separate calves to reduce disease transfer from nose-to-nose contact. Separate calf groups from older animals to minimize exposure to disease organisms. Keep calves in individual pens in an enclosed building or individual hutches until weaning. After weaning they can be moved to small group pens.

Hutches in Cold Housing

There are also a variety of prefabricated plastic/fiberglass hutches on the market. Hutches made of a translucent material require shade in summer. Summer shade reduces heat stress on all types of hutches. Provide enough shade to allow hutches to be moved.

Hutch management

Face hutch fronts south or east to provide draft protection during winter and sun exposure during the day. Provide enough hutches to allow a minimum of two weeks resting period after a calf is removed. Locate hutches on a well drained area. Crushed rock or sand base provide a solid base for bedding and lessen the possibility the hutch will freeze to the ground in winter. After removing the calf, move the hutch to a clean site to break disease cycles. Use enough bedding to keep calves clean and dry and to insulate calves from the ground. To provide operator comfort, hutches may be placed inside a well ventilated shed or structure, in effect providing a cold housing environment in winter and shade in the summer, Fig 3.

Individual Pen in Cold Housing

Individual calf pens, Fig 4,  can be used inside a cold housing building. Pens are typically 4'x7' and removable. They provide isolation for each calf. Solid partitions between pens and beyond the front of the pen prevent nose-to-nose contact. A hover or cover on the back half of the pen gives the calf additional protection in especially drafty locations. Pens use building space more efficiently than do calf hutches, although increasing animal density increases ventilation requirements. Place pens on a crushed rock base or concrete floor to provide a base for bedding. Individual pens require the same type of management as calf hutches.

Individual Stall in Warm Housing

Use individual 2'x4' stalls only in warm housing. This system requires the least space per calf, but must be used in insulated, environmentally controlled buildings with mechanical ventilation and supplemental heat.

Table 7. Dairy ventilating rates. Size the system based on total building capacity.

Moving a newly weaned calf from an individual pen to a small group environment is an abrupt change or transition. The combination of stresses due to new social interactions with other calves, competition for feed and water, and a new housing system can seriously affect calf growth and performance.

Giving special consideration to the calf's environment can make this transition less stressful as the calf adjusts to group living and learns to compete. Monitor calves for adequate dry feed and water intake and make sure calves are disease free before moving them into a group pen.

Provide transition housing for calves from weaning to 5 months of age. Maintain small groups of 4-5 calves per group with a small range in size or age (I month maximum). Provide well bedded pens that allow 25-30 ft² of resting space per calf. Have fresh water available at all times. Transition housing should provide an environment similar to calf hutches only in a group setting. Depending on herd size and the ability to observe an individual calf, the maximum group size would be 20 calves.

Calf Shelter or Super Hutch

Portable shelters or super hutches can provide transition housing for calves from cold housing. A super calf hutch is designed for up to six calves, Fig 5. An optional paved lot and addition of a fenced area can be used with the super hutches, Fig 6. Keep the shelter well bedded and alternate the hutch site between groups of calves. In a pasture system the super hutch can be rotated on the pasture, Fig 7. Waterers can be centrally located or moved with the hutch site.

Transition Barn

For herds greater than 100 milking cows, a series of 10'x24' pens can be used in a «transition barn» for calves up to six months old, Fig 8. Capacity for this arrangement is six animals if the feed alley is scraped and eight animals if the entire pen is bedded.

Transition barns commonly have a 3:12 single slope roof with no insulation. The barns should open to the south or east to take advantage of the sunlight. The eave in the back wall is open to aid in moisture control in the winter. During summer remove fabric or other coverings on the back and endwalls for natural ventilation. Extend both ends of the barn 4' beyond the pen fronts to minimize wind effects at the corners of the barn during cold weather. Locate waterers in the feed manger line to minimize splashed water in the bedded area.

To minimize excessive drafts in long barns, attach plywood to gates and hang fabric from the underside of the roof down to the gate between alternate pens. During cold weather, place straw bales along the bottom edge of the gates to stop drafts. Remove bales during warm weather.

Calf Barn

Calf barns combine individual pens, Fig 4, and transition group pens for calves into one building design, Fig 9. A full open sidewall with curtain provides cross ventilation in summer and draft protection in the winter. The upper half of the building can be a pivot door or curtain for draft protection in winter. The lower part of the wall can have removable panels for better summer ventilation. Air movement through the building should be sufficient to maintain inside temperature only slightly above outside temperature in the winter and slightly below outside temperature in summer.

Use solid partitions between calves to prevent nose to nose contact. Wire fences on fronts and backs of pens allow better air circulation during warm weather, but arrange pens to keep calves from contacting each other. In winter, use solid pen backs to provide draft protection. Hovers may be needed in winter. Choose or construct pens that are easily dismantled for manure removal.

Heifer housing (6-24 months)

There are several options for housing heifers after transition housing. Regardless of housing type, group animals according to a management plan considering nutritional, health and reproductive needs of each group. At a minimum, a logical break in grouping is a breeding age group and a bred heifer group.

The primary functions of heifer housing are to:

Ø Minimize animal handling for treatment.

Ø Allow for animal breeding.

Ø Allow for animal observation.

Even though heifers can tolerate more stress as they grow older, they still must be protected from wet conditions, drafts, and poor environment. In open front housing, provide group pens of sufficient depth to protect heifers from winter winds. Solid pen partitions help reduce drafts.

Freestall Housing

Young heifers are grouped in freestall housing with stalls sized according to age or size of heifer, Table 4. Freestall housing requires considerably less bedding than bedded pack housing. Frequent manure removal is required (once or twice a week), unless floors are slotted. Frozen manure can be a problem in cold barns, but is manageable.

There are several different layouts that can be used in freestall housing. Each alternative is suited to particular feeding and manure handling situations. Each alternative has adequate feedbunk space, Table 6. Freestalls can be inside with outside lots for exercise and feeding. The trend is having freestalls and feeding included under the building roof or confined area. Outside exercise lots may still be provided for use during periods of good weather.

Two-row freestall barn

Two-row freestall barns are typically used for up to 100 heifers, Fig 10. Freestall length for each group in Table 4 is sized to provide maximum comfort for the size of animal in the group. Heifers are grouped in pens around the perimeter of the building.

Two-row graduated freestall barn

A two-row graduated freestall barn changes the length of the freestall in the pen by placing the curb at an angle to the side of the building. Stalls at one end of the building are shorter than at the other end of the building. The alley floor is sloped toward the freestall where a grated gutter is used to remove manure. The floor slope provides a self-cleaning floor. Stalls are bedded with chopped bedding to allow movement of the manure and bedding through the grate. Gravity gutter, flush gutter or barn cleaner can be used to remove manure. Building temperatures must remain above freezing most of the time to prevent frozen manure in gutters. This type of building requires a controlled natural ventilation system.

Two-row gated freestall

A two-row gated freestall barn can provide good housing, Fig 11. Two rows of freestalls along one side of a single bunk, all under roof, provides flexibility in feeding system design. Depending on the particular layout, feeding may be accomplished with a feed cart, mechanical bunk or mobile scale mixer. In three-row barns, there is limited bunk space; when feed is always available, competition for feed can be managed.

Two-row gated freestalls with optional outside exercise lots, can be used in good weather, Fig 12. Manure in the gated freestall system is easily removed by a tractor-mounted scraper. Cows are fenced in one alley while the other alley is cleaned. When the feed bunk is located on the south or east side in a cold barn, the bunk side of the building may be left open. In warm housing, 4"-8" wide slats are an alternative for manure handling. Slats could be placed over gravity channels to separate manure from animals.

Drive-through gated freestall

Gated freestall barns can be expanded for larger herds by using a common center feed alley. Stall rows are located on both sides of the feed alley. Feeding can be accomplished with drive-through feeding alleys sized for a feed wagon or feed cart.

Bedded Pack

Bedded pack housing is commonly used in conjunction with an outside feeding and exercise area, Fig 13. However, there are advantages of roofing the entire area including the scrape and feeding alley. Provide enough space for each group of animals in the bedded resting area, Table 3. The bedded area is roofed and provides a warm, draft-free resting surface. Bedded pack barns are often sized to allow installation of a scrape alley and freestalls at a later date.

Macadam or crushed rock surface can be used under the resting area pack. If concrete is used, provide drainage by sloping to the scraped manure alley. Add bedding to the upper end of the resting area pack as needed. Remove manure and bedding as a solid 2-4 times a year. A substantial amount of bedding is required to keep animals clean and dry.

Paved feeding alleys are typically scraped 2-3 times per week. Extending the roof over this area reduces runoff. To provide for a system with an outside lot, the feeding alley is extended away from the building and is generally not roofed. Runoff must be controlled to prevent surface water and groundwater contamination.

Outside drive-by feeding can be done or the feed platform can be roofed under the same building when a scrape alley is used. The bunk can be roofed separately when an outside lot is used. Bunk space may be limited in this type of housing so feed should be available at all times to limit competition.

Counter-sloped barn

The counter-sloped barn, a relatively low cost facility, is based on a sloped resting and feeding floor separated by a tractor scraped alley, Fig 14. The resting floor and feeding floor are sloped 8% (l"/ft) toward the center scrape alley and are self-cleaning. Size the resting area of the pens to allow for a self-cleaning resting area. Table 3.

Runoff from uncovered alleys must be controlled to prevent stream and groundwater pollution. The building can also be designed to be completely under roof to control water entry. This system is not recommended for heifers younger than six months or bred heifers during the last three months of pregnancy because of bedding and the larger group sizes.

Optional outside lots

Optional outside lots can sometimes be incorporated into building design when desired. Outside lots can help reduce manure accumulation in the building, but must be cleaned and managed properly. Outside lots may be of some benefit in reducing foot and leg problems in dry cows. Pasture is sometimes used as part of the feed ration. Animal density is low to allow the pasture to recover after grazing. Pasture can be rotated to provide rest and recovery of vegetation. Pasture that is too heavily grazed becomes a dirt lot over time and can cause problems when not managed properly.

Dirt exercise lots tend to have a high animal density and typically have little or no vegetative cover. They become muddy in wet weather and can cause environmental mastitis in heifers before they enter the milking herd. Use dirt lots only when weather permits.

Concrete paved exercise lots can be incorporated into building designs either as an exercise area or an integral part of the building design. Runoff from lots must be controlled and handled as part of the manure handling and storage system. Additional labor is required to scrape lots and dispose of manure. Consider the cost of a runoff control system in the total system cost. Also consider water quality issues in the overall design of the housing option.